Fans

Mandarin Fans By Theresa Riley Mandarin fans, also known as the fan of one hundred faces, were often associated with the China Trade. From the 16th to the 19th centuries the Chinese ports of Canton, Whampoa and the Portuguese port of Macao saw countless types of cargo made for the western market, among these the mandarin fan. During the 18th century European courts had promoted the use of the fan as an essential fashion accessory. The fan became a lucrative commodity for the Chinese and by the 19th century the mandarin fan became an important export item. Life for western merchants in China had not always been easy. In the late 16th century the Portuguese had secured permission from the local Chinese to trade on the Macao peninsula. Prior to 1557 Portuguese brigands had been accused of robbery, extortion and the purchase of kidnapped Chinese children. The Chinese wrote vivid accounts of the Portuguese cooking and eating Chinese children in the early 16th century. The Chinese were very wary of the foreigners. Ultimately, Macao became a center for silk exports as well as producing mandarin fans. The ports of Canton and Whampoa were recorded in the trade records of the East India Company. Trade was controlled by the Chinese, who also restricted the merchant's life. Foreign merchants were not permitted to bring their wives, ride in sedan chairs, and enter the city gates. They were, in fact, required to spend their off season in Macao. Kept outside the city walls, the foreign merchants were confined to the riverbank area known as the Thirteen Factories. The mercantile representatives who resided in the Thirteen Factories had the opportunity to reap great profit. and also might get to know some Chinese hong merchants, but basically the foreigners knew very little of the Chinese language or culture. Yet the foreign merchants had to abide by Chinese law. The Chinese mandarin fan which westerners enjoyed seeing and owning had a pavilion scene with mandarins on one side, and often varied subjects such as birds, flowers, children at play and Chinese port scenes on the other. The fans were made from paper and painted with gauche and ink in many colors. The mandarin and female court figures who were sometime portrayed on the fan had garments made from silk, which were pasted on the fan, and painted ivory faces. The faces usually tended to be exactly alike. Occasionally an elderly mandarin might have a beard, and the women had feminine hairstyles. A count of the figures on 19th century fans would usually produce fifteen figures on one side and fifteen on the opposite, provided both side of the fan had pavilion scenes. Later 19th century fans had thirty figures on each side, but often the amount of represented mandarins differed from each side to the fan to the other. Thus, there could be twenty-five figures on one side and thirty figures on the reverse. Making of the mandarin fan involved a tedious, difficult process involving the talents and patience of many people. During the 18th and 19th centuries paper was hand made specifically for the fan. A cutter and shaper shaped and cut this paper into two leaves. An outline of the scene was sketched with a brush and the background color was applied. Figures and buildings were then painted by specific artists who excelled in these areas of expertise. The silk gowns and ivory faces were then pasted by another artist. Some Westerners believed the ivory faces were made from human fingernails, which was untrue. Finishers applied border details, and later sticks and guards of sandalwood, ivory, silver, lacquer, and varied materials were inserted. The fan's opening and closing had to be symmetrically correct and required the experience of an expert in folding. The inserted sticks were glued, the ends folded and a tassel completed the fan. In the past, silk brocade covered cardboard fan boxes were used. (ed. and fitted lacquered boxes) The mandarins shown on these fans were educated Chinese officials. In China equal opportunity was open to all males who wanted to advance their careers through education, ultimately holding public office. No religious order nor the Chinese state would finance this student, so in many cases the education had to be a simple one. Families financed their sons when they could afford it. The hours were long, the teachers poorly paid and the work disciplined. From sunrise to nightfall, classes were held. In the winter and in the summer there were slightly shorter school hours. The writings of the great teacher Confucius were emphasized as well as the poetry of Tank dynasty poets. Students were drilled by memorization, and punishment was administered by the bamboo rod. A lowly peasant could become a scholar and a gentleman. Some students studied at home, some were financed by wealthy men and the latter then expected favors when and if the student attained public office as a mandarin. The student was required to pass the Chinese examination system, which had started during the Han dynasty and was firmly established by the Tang dynasty. The Chinese believed that before a man held public office he should be well-trained, especially if he showed ability. Periodic examinations were held in districts and opened to males of all ages. Knowledge and memorization of Confucius, Chinese poetry, history, politics, and moral issues were imperative. If a scholar failed the exam he took it again. These exams were held biannually in the autumn, the Metropolitan, held in the city of Beijing (Peking) and in the spring; a Palace examination which was the final one was held inside the Imperial Palace. This very difficult exam was held in the Examination Hall where there were ten thousand cells for students to study in. Here they were confined with their food and bedding for three days. They wrote essays on subjects they were given during their confinement. Cheating was usually accomplished with a large handkerchief-like crib sheet filled with thousand of Chinese characters. The accommodations were unclean, cold, poorly lit and uncomfortable. The scholar's character and moral judgment would be revealed in essays on poetry and esoteric writings. If a scholar was caught cheating he could receive a death punishment. During the 19th century it was possible to buy yourself and "office" and sometimes diplomas were forged. After awhile these examinations became mechanical, and officials; became corrupt. The highest academic institution was the Han Academy, which was under the control of Beijing's central government. Often the candidates entered the academy before taking their final exam. If an unsuccessful candidate kept failing the exams, after he had passed the first exam he was given an honorary degree at eighty years of age, since the Chinese respected old age. In Chinese art one often sees a representation of a dragon-gate and a man riding the head of a dragon among the clouds. Sometimes a carp is in swirling water trying to jump through the dragon-gate. Both of these represent the scholar struggling with the imperial examinations. "Mounting the cloudy ladder" signified passing the final examinations. If one enters the dragon-gate it signified a first place winner known as Chang Yuen and the winner rode the dragon's head. Scholars who held the three highest positions were known as "Entered Scholar" (1st place), "Proclamation Eye" (2nd place) and "Flower Visitation" (3rd place). The candidates with lower grades were called Han Lin or "Forest of Pencils." A first place winner was highly esteemed and could marry royalty or become a viceroy. In 1906, before China became a republic, the examination system was abolished. Scholars received government appointments according to their examination scores. Some of the posts were prestigious but they could also be dangerous. To avoid any conflicting interests, mandarins were often sent to districts away from their home territory. If he did not fulfill his responsibilities to his immediate supervisor and the emperor, he could be punished severely. His career could be shortened and he could receive fines and censure. A typical term of office was about eight years during the Ming dynasty, and most of the mandarins did earn their degrees. Basically, many hoped for early retirement with distinction, so they could pursue teaching, writing or the care and dutiful obligations to their elderly parents. Above all, the mandarin-scholar learned the art of compromise and the avoidance of confrontational public issues. In his retirement he found solace in his garden. He had a studio where he practiced calligraphy and enjoyed the company of his friends over a cup of tea or a glass of wine. We catch a glimpse of this garden in the mandarin fan. Carefully placed irregular rocks form abstract sculptures that represent mountains and in a sense, according to Taoist belief, all are nature's skeleton. Chinese scholars and artists have revered rocks and often worshipped them. In the pavilion's architecture we see a ting or open structure with a pillar supported roof, in essence an open pavilion. It provided protection from the elements and a view of the landscape's mountains and water. The open pavilion's roof has upturned corners, popular in Chinese architecture. The pavilion's shape varied. It could be round, octagonal, hexagonal, fan-shaped or even quatrefoil. Often covered walkways called langs are featured in mandarin fans. Sometimes the mandarins painted on the fan carry fans themselves and some carry court writing tablets. Early writing tablets were believed to be made from thin wood or narrow ivory strips. The writing tablet is the symbol of one of the Eight Taoist Immortals, Ts'ao Kuo-chin. The writing tablet dates from the Han dynasty and was often of jade. During an audience with the emperor the mandarin held the tablet and wrote the emperor's reply on it. This tablet and the fan case, with toiletry items, were suspended from the mandarin's waist. The tablet was attached by a silk cord from a drilled hole. On some mandarin fans we see a mandarin riding a white horse. Several explanations have been suggested for the significance of the white horse. It is said by some that the white horse was representative of the scholar who attained the highest grades in the examination. To others, the house itself signified the scholar. Scholars were often fond of painting horses because a horse could be represented as a nag or a thoroughbred. Some horses were slow, others fast, and some distinguished, this creating an analogy to the mandarins career. A lean horse could symbolize an honest mandarin who was poorly fed and ill-treated, a fat horse could signify arrogance, corruption and a mandarin with a soft life. Among Chinese minorities, like the Miao minority, the horse transported the deceased from this world to the next. According to Buddhist legend, it was a white horse that carried the holy scriptures to China from India. The horse is one of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac, and people born in the year of the horse are often intelligent, perceptive, adept at money management, and possess confidence and great ability. Perhaps, we would like to believe all of these attributes were deeply instilled in the mandarin portrayed in the mandarin fan. Most of us would like to think so as we examine and enjoy the fan with the thousand faces. Bibliography Carter, Michael. Crafts of China. Doubleday and Co. Inc. 1977 Durant, Will. Our Oriental Heritage; The Story of Civilization I. Simon and Schuster, 1963 Fairbank, J.K. "The Coming of the Europeans" in East Asia: The Modern Transformation: History of East Asian Civilization. John K Fairbank, Edwin O. Reischauer and Albert M. Craig, 1965. Feddersen, Martin. Chinese Decorative Art. Thomas Yoseloff, 1961. Fong, Wewand Murch, Alfreda. "The Scholar's Garden" in A Chinese Garden Court: The Astor Court of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. M.M.A. Bulletin, Winter 1980/81. Harriot, Robert E. Jr. Power and Virtue: The Horse in Chinese Art. China Institute, 1997. Morris, Edwin T. The Gardens of China. Charles Scribner's Sons 1981